Spatial and temporal variation of trace elements in paddy soils and rice from a lowland bocage floodplain (Baixo Vouga Lagunar, Portugal)

This study evaluates trace elements in paddy soils, irrigation water, and rice in the Baixo Vouga Lagunar floodplain. While some soils show elevated As, Pb, and U, rice grains remain below EU safety limits. The work highlights spatial variability and low environmental risk for rice production.